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Rape

Rape Prevention



There are many approaches to rape prevention. One approach has been to warn women not to go out alone at night, talk to strangers, or wear certain types of clothing. Unfortunately, such advice limits women's freedom and is ineffective because it is based on the myth that most rapists are strangers.



Another approach involves self-defense training. This approach has the advantage of helping women defend themselves while not limiting their freedom. Active resistance strategies such as physically fighting, yelling, screaming, and fleeing are generally more effective in resisting rape attempts than more passive strategies such as begging, pleading, or crying; furthermore, these active strategies do not seem to increase a woman's chance of being injured (Zoucha-Jensen and Coyne 1993).

Particularly on college campuses in the United States, attempts have been made to create educational rape prevention programs to change attitudes that seem to contribute to rape among young adults. There is some evidence that such programs may effectively reduce students' beliefs in myths about rape (e.g., Pinzone-Glover, Gidycz, and Jacobs 1998). However, more research is needed to determine whether changes in attitude are maintained and to determine whether changes in attitude result in changes in rape rates among program participants.

Most important is the need to address the causes of rape. Working for gender equality and against the ideas that violence against women is sexy and that violence is a good way to solve problems could help to decrease the prevalence of rape. Both men and women can work for changes in the media, laws, and public opinion so that rape is treated as unacceptable, even when it occurs within dating or family relationships.

Bibliography

Berkowitz, A. (1992). "College Men as Perpetrators of Acquaintance Rape and Sexual Assault: A Review of Recent Research." Journal of American College Health 40:175–181.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2000). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Burt, M. R. (1991). "Rape Myths and Acquaintance Rape." In Acquaintance Rape: The Hidden Crime, ed. A. Parrot and L. Bechhofer. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Drieschner, K., and Lange, A. (1999). "A Review of Cognitive Factors in the Etiology of Rape: Theories, Empirical Studies, and Implications." Clinical Psychology Review 19:57–77.

Heise, L. L.; Raikes, A.; Watts, C. H.; and Zwi, A. B. (1994). "Violence Against Women: A Neglected Public Health Issue in Less Developed Countries." Social Science and Medicine 39:1165–1179.

Human Rights Watch. (1995). The Human Rights Watch Global Report on Women's Human Rights. New York: Author.

Mezey, G., and King, M. (1989). "The Effects of Sexual Assault on Men: A Survey of 22 Victims." Psychological Medicine 19:205–209.

Muehlenhard, C. L.; Danoff-Burg, S.; and Powch, I. G. (1996). "Is Rape Sex or Violence? Conceptual Issues and Implications." In Sex, Power, Conflict: Feminist and Evolutionary Perspectives, ed. D. M. Buss and N. Malamuth. New York: Oxford University Press.

Muehlenhard, C. L.; Goggins, M. F.; Jones, J. M.; and Satterfield, A. T. (1991). "Sexual Violence and Coercion in Close Relationships." In Sexuality in Close Relationships, ed. K. McKinney and S. Sprecher. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Muehlenhard, C. L.; Highby, B. J.; Lee, R. S.; Bryan, T. S.; and Dodrill, W. A. (1998). "The Sexual Revictimization of Women and Men Sexually Abused as Children: A Review of the Literature." Annual Review of Sex Research 9:1–47.

Muehlenhard, C. L., and Kimes, L. A. (1999). "The Social Construction of Violence: The Case of Sexual and Domestic Violence." Personality and Social Psychology Review 3:234–245.

Muehlenhard, C. L.; Powch, I. G.; Phelps, J. L.; and Giusti, L. M. (1992). "Definitions of Rape: Scientific and Political Implications." Journal of Social Issues 48(1):23–44.

Muehlenhard, C. L.; Sympson, S. C.; Phelps, J. L.; and Highby, B. J. (1994). "Are Rape Statistics Exaggerated? A Response to Criticism of Contemporary Rape Research." The Journal of Sex Research 31:144–146.

Neapolitan, J. L. (1997). Cross-National Crime: A Research Review and Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Pinzone-Glover, H. A.; Gidycz, C. A.; and Jacobs, C. D. (1998). "An Acquaintance Rape Prevention Program: Effects on Attitudes Toward Women, Rape Related Attitudes, and Perceptions of Rape Scenarios." Psychology of Women Quarterly 22:605–621.

Sanday, P. R. (1981). "The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study." Journal of Social Issues 37(4):5–27.

Sarrel, P. M., and Masters, W. H. (1982). "Sexual Molestation of Men by Women." Archives of Sexual Behavior 11:117–131.

Shapiro, B. L., and Schwarz, J. C. (1997). "Date Rape: Its Relationship to Trauma Symptoms and Sexual Self-Esteem." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12:407–419.

Testa, M., and Dermen, K. H. (1999). "The Differential Correlates of Sexual Coercion and Rape." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:548–561.

Tjaden, P., and Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ181867). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

Ullman, S. E.; Karabatsos, G.; and Koss, M. P. (1999). "Alcohol and Sexual Assault in a National Sample of College Women." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:603–625.

van Dijk, J. J. M.; Mayhew, P.; and Killias, M. (1991). Experiences of Crime Across the World. Boston: Kluwer Law and Taxation Press.

Waterman, C. K.; Dawson, L. J.; and Bologna, M. J. (1989). "Sexual Coercion in Gay Male and Lesbian Relationships." Journal of Sex Research 26:118–124.

Zoucha-Jensen, J. M., and Coyne, A. (1993). "The Effects of Resistance Strategies on Rape." American Journal of Public Health 83:1633–1634.

Other Resource

"RAINN Statistics." (2001). Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network. Washington, DC. Available from http://www.rainn.org/statistics.html.

ZOË D. PETERSON
CHARLENE L. MUEHLENHARD

Additional topics

Marriage and Family EncyclopediaFamily Social IssuesRape - Incidence And Prevalence, Characteristics Of Rape Victims And Rapists, Causes Of Rape, Consequences Of Rape